Whey Protein

    Researchedby:
    Brady Holmer

    Fact-checked

    by:

    Nick Milazzo
    Last Updated: October 12, 2023

    Whey protein is one of the two high-quality proteins derived from cow’s milk (casein being the other). Its high digestibility, quick absorption, and well-researched benefits for muscle gain and cardiometabolic health make it a popular protein supplement among athletes and older adults.

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    What is whey protein?

    Whey protein is a collection of proteins found in whey, a byproduct of cheesemaking. When a coagulant (usually rennet) is added to milk, the curds (casein) and whey separate; whey protein is the water-soluble part of milk. Whey protein is often consumed as a supplement in the form of dry powders with various levels of processing that affect how concentrated a source of protein they are and how fast they’re absorbed. There are three main types of whey protein: whey concentrate, whey isolate, and whey hydrolysate.

    How much protein do I need per day?

    What’s the difference between the various types of whey protein?

    What are whey protein’s main benefits?

    Whey is considered to be a high-quality, well-absorbed source of protein with benefits that are similar to those of increasing protein intake in general, such as augmenting muscle gain when paired with resistance training, limiting muscle loss during low-calorie diets/aging, and modestly limiting fat gain during periods of excessive calorie intake (e.g., “bulking”).

    Whey contains high levels of the amino acid leucine, which is the most proteogenic (capable of increasing muscle protein synthesis or MPS) amino acid. As such, whey may be more potent at stimulating MPS than other protein types.[31] Furthermore, supplementing with whey may benefit blood pressure,[32] endothelial function,[33] and appears to improve several glycemic- and lipid-related biomarkers in adults with type 2 diabetes and other metabolic conditions.[34][35][36]

    Do I need to take whey protein immediately after my workout?

    Is whey protein superior to other protein sources?

    Is whey protein safe to consume while pregnant or lactating?

    Is whey protein effective for older adults?

    What are whey protein’s main drawbacks?

    Some individuals may experience digestive discomfort, bloating, gas, or diarrhea after consuming whey protein, but this will depend on the dose and one’s tolerance. Whey protein concentrate contains the milk sugar lactose, so individuals with lactose intolerance may want to avoid this form of whey protein in favor of isolate/hydrolysate (which don’t contain fat and contain very little lactose, making these forms of whey protein tolerable by all but the most lactose-sensitive individuals).

    Whey (and protein in general) does not harm the liver or kidneys, but high-protein diets can exacerbate or accelerate pre-existing damage. People with damaged livers or kidneys should exercise caution when increasing protein intake quickly without the guidance of a doctor. See more below: “Can eating too much protein be bad for you?”

    Furthermore, a 2018 report on protein powders found that of the 134 products tested, over 70% of them had detectable levels of lead and cadmium. However, no data were reported on whey protein powders specifically and it should be noted that “detectable” does not necessarily mean harmful.[37]

    Can eating too much protein be bad for you?

    How does whey protein work?

    Whey protein appears to resist coagulation in the stomach and pass quickly to the intestines (at least when compared to casein and other proteins). Leucine spikes in the blood approximately 40–60 minutes after the ingestion of whey protein,[31] which is quicker than that observed for other protein sources (e.g., tuna, turkey, and egg).[38] As such, whey rapidly stimulates muscle protein synthesis (MPS).

    What are other names for Whey Protein

    Note that Whey Protein is also known as:
    • whey
    • whey concentrate
    • whey isolate
    • whey hydrolysate
    • hydrolyzed whey
    • whey protein powder
    Whey Protein should not be confused with:

    Dosage information

    Optimal protein intake will vary depending on one’s unique goals, and you can use our protein intake calculator to estimate your optimal daily protein intake, which is based on the evidence presented in our optimal protein intake guide.

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    Examine Database: Whey Protein

    Metabolic Health
    Muscle Size & Strength
    General Athletic Performance
    Obesity
    General Cardiovascular Health
    Weight Loss & Maintenance
    Muscle Gain
    Type 2 Diabetes
    Body Composition
    Sarcopenia
    Metabolic Syndrome
    Overweight
    Healthy Muscle Aging
    Chronic Kidney Disease
    High Cholesterol
    Menopause
    Type 1 Diabetes
    Aerobic Exercise Performance
    Bone Health
    General Cancer Care And Prevention
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    Frequently asked questions

    What is whey protein?

    Whey protein is a collection of proteins found in whey, a byproduct of cheesemaking. When a coagulant (usually rennet) is added to milk, the curds (casein) and whey separate; whey protein is the water-soluble part of milk. Whey protein is often consumed as a supplement in the form of dry powders with various levels of processing that affect how concentrated a source of protein they are and how fast they’re absorbed. There are three main types of whey protein: whey concentrate, whey isolate, and whey hydrolysate.

    How much protein do I need per day?

    Protein requirements differ depending on age, sex, activity level, and a multitude of other factors. Generally, most adults should consume 1.2 to 2.4 grams of protein per kilogram of body mass per day (g/kg/day) — sedentary individuals can likely obtain adequate protein near the lower end of this range, while active individuals and those looking to gain muscle should skew their intake toward the higher end.

    You don’t need to supplement to achieve your daily protein intake goals — protein can come entirely from whole foods or from a combination of whole foods and protein supplements (e.g., whey protein powder). However, protein powders can be a great and convenient way to get more protein. If you want more information on how to determine your optimal protein intake, check out our optimal protein intake guide or easily calculate your protein needs with our protein intake calculator.

    As for protein intake per meal, it seems that 0.4 g/kg/meal is optimal for stimulating muscle protein synthesis (MPS) for most younger adults; a dose of 0.4 to 0.6 g/kg/meal is best for older adults.[39][40] And no, your body doesn’t “waste” protein if you eat more than 30 grams in one sitting — this is a common myth.

    What’s the difference between the various types of whey protein?

    Whey protein concentrate is the least processed form of whey protein and is 35%–80% protein by weight, although most whey protein concentrate powders tend to be standardized at 80% protein by weight.[54]

    Whey protein isolate is defined as being more than 90% protein by weight.

    Whey hydrolysate is protein that has been pretreated with enzymes and acid to reduce its particle size; it’s the fastest absorbed form of whey. Hydrolyzation reduces the allergic potential of whey and milk protein, which is why hydrolyzed whey is often used in infant formula. Hydrolyzed whey also tends to have better solubility and digestibility.[55]

    Is one form better than the others? There haven’t been many comparison studies, although one trial noted that whey hydrolysate may enhance muscle recovery more than whey isolate[56] and another found that whey hydrolysate may increase muscle protein synthesis at rest more than casein or casein hydrolysate (a faster-absorbed form of casein).[57]

    What are whey protein’s main benefits?

    Whey is considered to be a high-quality, well-absorbed source of protein with benefits that are similar to those of increasing protein intake in general, such as augmenting muscle gain when paired with resistance training, limiting muscle loss during low-calorie diets/aging, and modestly limiting fat gain during periods of excessive calorie intake (e.g., “bulking”).

    Whey contains high levels of the amino acid leucine, which is the most proteogenic (capable of increasing muscle protein synthesis or MPS) amino acid. As such, whey may be more potent at stimulating MPS than other protein types.[31] Furthermore, supplementing with whey may benefit blood pressure,[32] endothelial function,[33] and appears to improve several glycemic- and lipid-related biomarkers in adults with type 2 diabetes and other metabolic conditions.[34][35][36]

    Do I need to take whey protein immediately after my workout?

    The popular idea of an “anabolic window” — a crucial period of time before/after training during which protein must be ingested to maximize muscular adaptations — has been called into question. Indeed, the largest determinant of gains in muscle strength and hypertrophy seems to be total protein intake throughout the day (and a well-structured resistance training program), rather than nutrient timing per se.[41]

    But protein timing may not be inconsequential; exercise does have a “sensitizing” effect on muscles, and consuming protein in close proximity to a workout can ensure that one maximizes this anabolic sensitivity. Furthermore, exercising on an empty stomach can put the body into a negative protein balance; reupping on protein afterward helps maintain a positive protein balance to promote muscle protein synthesis instead of breakdown, and seems to be better than eating a protein-containing meal before or a few hours after working out.[42]

    Is whey protein superior to other protein sources?

    Whey protein is highly bioavailable, rich in essential amino acid (including leucine), and quickly digested. Consuming whey causes a larger increase in blood amino acids than does casein or soy protein. And, both at rest and after exercise, whey protein stimulates muscle protein synthesis (MPS) to a greater degree than casein and soy — likely due to the quicker digestion and/or higher leucine content of whey hydrolysate.[43]

    Is whey protein safe to consume while pregnant or lactating?

    Pregnant and lactating people may need more protein than previously recommended — 1.66 to 1.77 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day (g/kg/day) seems to be ideal,[44][45] with 1.5 g/kg/day being the lower threshold for maintaining a positive nitrogen balance.[46] Furthermore, some studies have observed that supplementing with protein during pregnancy seems to reduce infant health risks, including low gestational weight, low birth weight, and stillbirth.[47]

    While there haven’t been any studies on whey protein supplementation for pregnant/lactating people per se, there’s some evidence that maternal consumption of dairy protein — and in particular whey protein — may benefit infant weight and body composition.[48]

    However, whey protein (and other protein) powders come with the risk of being possibly contaminated with heavy metals or other pesticides. After all, dietary supplements (including protein powders) aren’t regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Some protein powders may also include added sugar and other ingredients that pregnant/lactating people may want to avoid. The best advice: read the labels carefully, and always discuss any supplements with your obstetrician/gynecologist (OB/GYN) or other healthcare professional before implementing any dietary changes.

    Is whey protein effective for older adults?

    Aging is associated with anabolic resistance — a muscle’s resistance to growth or stimulation of muscle protein synthesis (MPS) — making it harder to build or maintain muscle mass. In other words, older muscles require a greater dose of protein to stimulate a similar amount of MPS as younger muscles.[49] For this reason, older adults who want to build or maintain muscle may need more protein (per day and per meal) than the RDA recommends, and whey protein is a great source because of its potent ability to stimulate MPS.

    In adults older than 60, whey protein supplementation (often when combined with resistance training) increases physical function, improves lean mass/skeletal muscle mass and upper-body strength in those with sarcopenia/frailty,[50][51] and is effective for increasing total protein intake and MPS.[52] Whey protein and resistance training also help postmenopausal women build more upper body strength and lower-body lean mass.[53]

    What are whey protein’s main drawbacks?

    Some individuals may experience digestive discomfort, bloating, gas, or diarrhea after consuming whey protein, but this will depend on the dose and one’s tolerance. Whey protein concentrate contains the milk sugar lactose, so individuals with lactose intolerance may want to avoid this form of whey protein in favor of isolate/hydrolysate (which don’t contain fat and contain very little lactose, making these forms of whey protein tolerable by all but the most lactose-sensitive individuals).

    Whey (and protein in general) does not harm the liver or kidneys, but high-protein diets can exacerbate or accelerate pre-existing damage. People with damaged livers or kidneys should exercise caution when increasing protein intake quickly without the guidance of a doctor. See more below: “Can eating too much protein be bad for you?”

    Furthermore, a 2018 report on protein powders found that of the 134 products tested, over 70% of them had detectable levels of lead and cadmium. However, no data were reported on whey protein powders specifically and it should be noted that “detectable” does not necessarily mean harmful.[37]

    Can eating too much protein be bad for you?
    Quick answer:

    Higher-protein diets augment muscle hypertrophy when combined with resistance training,[1] boost weight loss and mitigate reductions in fat-free mass while dieting,[2] help maintain muscle mass and function with aging,[3] and can improve glycemic control in people with type 2 diabetes.[4][5][6] But must all good things come with downsides? Over the years, some have cautioned that despite its numerous potential benefits, consuming a high-protein diet may also come with long-term health risks, while others have proclaimed that a high-protein diet is outright bad for you. The two most notable criticisms are that a high-protein diet negatively affects bone health and kidney health.

    Bone health

    The acid-ash hypothesis states the following: The metabolism of certain foods — namely protein and grains — increases acid production in the body, as evidenced by an increase in urinary acidity.[7] To counteract this increase in acidity, bone is broken down to release calcium bicarbonate (a base) corresponding with an increase in urinary calcium excretion, which is thought to reflect negative body calcium balance or bone loss. Therefore, a high-protein or acid-producing diet accelerates bone loss and increases the risk of osteoporosis.

    However, changes in urine pH don’t necessarily reflect changes in blood pH, which is maintained within a narrow range primarily by the renal and pulmonary systems in healthy people.[8] Additionally, variations in diet have virtually no effect on blood pH, as any nutritional influence that slightly disrupts acid-base balance is immediately corrected by biochemical buffering systems that do not involve bone.[8]

    While an increase in urinary acidity has been correlated with an increase in urinary calcium excretion, dietary changes that increase urinary acidity do not lower body calcium balance.[9] Relatedly, a higher-protein diet does not negatively affect dietary calcium retention because although it increases urinary calcium excretion, it increases intestinal calcium absorption by a similar magnitude.[10][11]

    Ultimately, the available evidence does not support the acid-ash hypothesis,[12] and in accordance, higher-protein diets do not have a negative effect on bone health.

    Meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies have reported that a higher-protein diet was either not associated with the risk of hip fracture,[13] or, compared to the group with the lowest protein intake, there was an 11%–16% lower risk of hip fracture in the group with the highest protein intake.[14][15][16]

    With respect to bone mineral density (BMD), a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials 12–24 months long reported that a higher-protein diet had a protective effect on lumbar spine BMD.[17] A higher-protein diet also tended to have a protective effect on total hip BMD, although this finding was not statistically significant. The data from prospective cohort studies is mixed on whether higher-protein diets have a protective effect on BMD (some studies suggest a benefit with more protein, while others have reported no impact), but there is a lack of evidence indicating that higher-protein diets are associated with lower BMD.[15][17]

    Concerning protein intakes significantly greater than the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), there are a couple of long-term prospective cohort studies in older adults that shed light on the topic. In one four-year study that included older men and women (average age of 75), the quartile with the highest protein intake (1.24–2.78 grams of protein per kg of body weight per day) showed the least BMD loss at the femur and lumbar spine.[18] Compared to the quartile with the highest protein intake, the quartiles with the lowest (0.21–0.71 g/kg/day) and second-lowest (0.72–0.96 g/kg/day) protein intakes experienced a significant reduction in femoral neck BMD.

    In a separate five-year cohort study that only included older women (average age of 75), a higher protein intake was associated with greater whole-body bone mineral content, and the tertile with the highest protein intake (about 1.6 g/kg/d) had significantly higher whole-body and appendicular bone mineral content than the tertiles with lower intakes.[19]

    Kidney health

    The idea that a high-protein diet puts undue stress on the kidneys stems from early research in rodents and dogs that reported increased urea excretion, renal blood flow, glomerular filtration rate (GFR; a marker of kidney function), and kidney size in animals fed a high-protein diet.[20] From this data, it was determined that a high-protein diet increases the workload of the kidneys, and thus may damage the kidneys over time and increase the risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD).

    A 2018 meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials that compared the effects of a high-protein diet (1.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day, on average) to a low-protein diet (0.93 g/kg/d) in healthy adults reported that higher protein intakes may slightly increase GFR.[21] Other data indicates that a high-protein diet does not adversely affect blood markers of kidney function or blood pressure.[22][23]

    Given these findings, a high-protein diet does not appear to pose a serious threat to kidney health. In further support of this conclusion, the issue at hand can be viewed through a different lens altogether; that is, is an increase in GFR a risk factor for CKD in healthy people? Such a relationship has yet to be clearly established.[21]

    In fact, an increase in GFR in response to an increase in solute load (e.g., nitrogen from protein) is a normal adaptive mechanism.[24] For example, GFR can increase by as much as 65% during pregnancy[25] but does not increase the risk of CKD.[26] Also, surgical removal of a kidney is not associated with a deterioration in kidney function in the long term (> 20 years), despite the increase in workload.[27][28][29]

    While a low-protein diet is recommended for people with CKD to help prevent disease progression,[30] this does not mean that a high-protein diet is harmful in all cases. The available evidence suggests that, in healthy people, a high-protein diet does not adversely affect kidney function or increase the risk of CKD.

    How does whey protein work?

    Whey protein appears to resist coagulation in the stomach and pass quickly to the intestines (at least when compared to casein and other proteins). Leucine spikes in the blood approximately 40–60 minutes after the ingestion of whey protein,[31] which is quicker than that observed for other protein sources (e.g., tuna, turkey, and egg).[38] As such, whey rapidly stimulates muscle protein synthesis (MPS).

    Update History

    References

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    Examine Database References

    1. Lean Mass - Kerksick CM, Rasmussen CJ, Lancaster SL, Magu B, Smith P, Melton C, Greenwood M, Almada AL, Earnest CP, Kreider RBThe effects of protein and amino acid supplementation on performance and training adaptations during ten weeks of resistance trainingJ Strength Cond Res.(2006 Aug)
    2. Lean Mass - Hoffman JR, Ratamess NA, Tranchina CP, Rashti SL, Kang J, Faigenbaum ADEffect of protein-supplement timing on strength, power, and body-composition changes in resistance-trained menInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2009 Apr)
    3. Weight - Masoome Piri Damaghi, Atieh Mirzababaei, Sajjad Moradi, Elnaz Daneshzad, Atefeh Tavakoli, Cain C T Clark, Khadijeh MirzaeiComparison of the Effect of Soy protein and Whey protein on Body Composition: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical TrialsBr J Nutr.(2021 May 11)
    4. Weight - Sepandi M, Samadi M, Shirvani H, Alimohamadi Y, Taghdir M, Goudarzi F, Akbarzadeh IEffect of whey protein supplementation on weight and body composition indicators: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.Clin Nutr ESPEN.(2022-Aug)
    5. Lean Mass - Weisgarber KD, Candow DG, Vogt E SMWhey Protein Before and During Resistance Exercise Has No Effect on Muscle Mass and Strength in Untrained Young AdultsInt J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab.(2012 Jul 4)
    6. Lean Mass - Andersen LL, Tufekovic G, Zebis MK, Crameri RM, Verlaan G, Kjaer M, Suetta C, Magnusson P, Aagaard PThe effect of resistance training combined with timed ingestion of protein on muscle fiber size and muscle strengthMetabolism.(2005 Feb)
    7. Weight - Vatani DS, Golzar FAChanges in antioxidant status and cardiovascular risk factors of overweight young men after six weeks supplementation of whey protein isolate and resistance trainingAppetite.(2012 Aug 10)
    8. Insulin - Reitelseder S, Agergaard J, Doessing S, Helmark IC, Lund P, Kristensen NB, Frystyk J, Flyvbjerg A, Schjerling P, van Hall G, Kjaer M, Holm LWhey and casein labeled with L-1-13Cleucine and muscle protein synthesis: effect of resistance exercise and protein ingestionAm J Physiol Endocrinol Metab.(2011 Jan)
    9. Muscle protein synthesis (MPS) - Tipton KD, Elliott TA, Cree MG, Wolf SE, Sanford AP, Wolfe RRIngestion of casein and whey proteins result in muscle anabolism after resistance exerciseMed Sci Sports Exerc.(2004 Dec)
    10. Bone Mineral Density - Zhu K, Meng X, Kerr DA, Devine A, Solah V, Binns CW, Prince RLThe effects of a two-year randomized, controlled trial of whey protein supplementation on bone structure, IGF-1, and urinary calcium excretion in older postmenopausal womenJ Bone Miner Res.(2011 Sep)
    11. Blood glucose - Bortolotti M, Maiolo E, Corazza M, Van Dijke E, Schneiter P, Boss A, Carrel G, Giusti V, Lê KA, Quo Chong DG, Buehler T, Kreis R, Boesch C, Tappy LEffects of a whey protein supplementation on intrahepatocellular lipids in obese female patientsClin Nutr.(2011 Aug)
    12. Insulin - Baer DJ, Stote KS, Paul DR, Harris GK, Rumpler WV, Clevidence BAWhey protein but not soy protein supplementation alters body weight and composition in free-living overweight and obese adultsJ Nutr.(2011 Aug)
    13. Insulin - Pal S, Ellis V, Dhaliwal SEffects of whey protein isolate on body composition, lipids, insulin and glucose in overweight and obese individualsBr J Nutr.(2010 Sep)
    14. Weight - Frestedt JL, Zenk JL, Kuskowski MA, Ward LS, Bastian EDA whey-protein supplement increases fat loss and spares lean muscle in obese subjects: a randomized human clinical studyNutr Metab (Lond).(2008 Mar 27)
    15. Appetite - J Lorenzen, R Frederiksen, C Hoppe, R Hvid, A AstrupThe effect of milk proteins on appetite regulation and diet-induced thermogenesisEur J Clin Nutr.(2012 May)
    16. Inflammation - Pal S, Ellis VAcute effects of whey protein isolate on blood pressure, vascular function and inflammatory markers in overweight postmenopausal womenBr J Nutr.(2011 May)
    17. Blood Pressure - Vajdi M, Musazadeh V, Zareei M, Adeli S, Karimi A, Hojjati A, Darzi M, Shoorei H, Abbasalizad Farhangi MThe effects of whey protein on blood pressure: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis.(2023-Sep)
    18. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Zhou LM, Xu JY, Rao CP, Han S, Wan Z, Qin LQEffect of whey supplementation on circulating C-reactive protein: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Nutrients.(2015-Feb-09)
    19. Interleukin 6 - Jamshidi S, Mohsenpour MA, Masoumi SJ, Fatahi S, Nasimi N, Zahabi ES, Pourrajab B, Shidfar FEffect of whey protein consumption on IL-6 and TNF-α: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Diabetes Metab Syndr.(2022-Jan)
    20. Endothelial Function - Hajizadeh-Sharafabad F, Sharifi Zahabi E, Tarighat-Esfanjani ARole of whey protein in vascular function: a systematic review and meta-analysis of human intervention studies.Br J Nutr.(2022-Aug-28)
    21. Weight - Chitapanarux T, Tienboon P, Pojchamarnwiputh S, Leelarungrayub DOpen-labeled pilot study of cysteine-rich whey protein isolate supplementation for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis patientsJ Gastroenterol Hepatol.(2009 Jun)
    22. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) - Amirani E, Milajerdi A, Reiner Ž, Mirzaei H, Mansournia MA, Asemi ZEffects of whey protein on glycemic control and serum lipoproteins in patients with metabolic syndrome and related conditions: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials.Lipids Health Dis.(2020-Sep-21)
    23. Insulin - Mikael Nilsson, Jens J Holst, Inger Me BjörckMetabolic effects of amino acid mixtures and whey protein in healthy subjects: studies using glucose-equivalent drinksAm J Clin Nutr.(2007 Apr)
    24. Insulin - Chiang SW, Liu HW, Loh EW, Tam KW, Wang JY, Huang WL, Kuan YCWhey protein supplementation improves postprandial glycemia in persons with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Nutr Res.(2022-Aug)
    25. Insulin - Smedegaard S, Kampmann U, Ovesen PG, Støvring H, Rittig NWhey Protein Premeal Lowers Postprandial Glucose Concentrations in Adults Compared with Water-The Effect of Timing, Dose, and Metabolic Status: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.Am J Clin Nutr.(2023-Aug)
    26. C-Reactive Protein (CRP) - Konstantinos Prokopidis, Mohsen Mazidi, Rajiv Sankaranarayanan, Behnam Tajik, Anne McArdle, Masoud IsanejadEffects of whey and soy protein supplementation on inflammatory cytokines in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysisBr J Nutr.(2023 Mar 14)
    27. Insulin - Anders H Frid, Mikael Nilsson, Jens Juul Holst, Inger M E BjörckEffect of whey on blood glucose and insulin responses to composite breakfast and lunch meals in type 2 diabetic subjectsAm J Clin Nutr.(2005 Jul)
    28. Muscle protein synthesis (MPS) - Pennings B, Groen B, de Lange A, Gijsen AP, Zorenc AH, Senden JM, van Loon LJAmino acid absorption and subsequent muscle protein accretion following graded intakes of whey protein in elderly menAm J Physiol Endocrinol Metab.(2012 Apr)
    29. Body Fat - Mojtahedi MC, Thorpe MP, Karampinos DC, Johnson CL, Layman DK, Georgiadis JG, Evans EMThe effects of a higher protein intake during energy restriction on changes in body composition and physical function in older womenJ Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci.(2011 Nov)
    30. Intestinal Permeability - Jaya Benjamin, Govind Makharia, Vineet Ahuja, K D Anand Rajan, Mani Kalaivani, Siddhartha Datta Gupta, Yogendra Kumar JoshiGlutamine and whey protein improve intestinal permeability and morphology in patients with Crohn's disease: a randomized controlled trialDig Dis Sci.(2012 Apr)
    31. Blood Pressure - Badely M, Sepandi M, Samadi M, Parastouei K, Taghdir MThe effect of whey protein on the components of metabolic syndrome in overweight and obese individuals; a systematic review and meta-analysis.Diabetes Metab Syndr.(2019)
    32. Fat-free mass (FFM) - Naclerio F, Larumbe-Zabala EEffects of Whey Protein Alone or as Part of a Multi-ingredient Formulation on Strength, Fat-Free Mass, or Lean Body Mass in Resistance-Trained Individuals: A Meta-analysis.Sports Med.(2016-Jan)
    33. Lower Body Strength - Kuo YY, Chang HY, Huang YC, Liu CWEffect of Whey Protein Supplementation in Postmenopausal Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Nutrients.(2022-Oct-10)
    34. Lower Body Strength - Kamińska MS, Rachubińska K, Grochans S, Skonieczna-Żydecka K, Cybulska AM, Grochans E, Karakiewicz BThe Impact of Whey Protein Supplementation on Sarcopenia Progression among the Elderly: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Nutrients.(2023-Apr-23)
    35. Heart Rate - Lam FC, Bukhsh A, Rehman H, Waqas MK, Shahid N, Khaliel AM, Elhanish A, Karoud M, Telb A, Khan TMEfficacy and Safety of Whey Protein Supplements on Vital Sign and Physical Performance Among Athletes: A Network Meta-Analysis.Front Pharmacol.(2019)
    36. Appetite - Mollahosseini M, Shab-Bidar S, Rahimi MH, Djafarian KEffect of whey protein supplementation on long and short term appetite: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.Clin Nutr ESPEN.(2017-Aug)
    37. Fat-free mass (FFM) - Lu Y, Wang YJ, Lu QThe effect of oral nutritional supplement on muscle fitness of patients undergoing dialysis: A systematic review and meta-analysis.J Adv Nurs.(2021-Apr)
    38. Lower Body Strength - Srinivasaraghavan N, Das N, Balakrishnan K, Rajaram SEffect of Whey Protein Supplementation on Perioperative Outcomes in Patients with Cancer-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PROSPERO 2020: CRD42020188666).Nutr Cancer.(2022)
    39. Muscle Size & Strength - Nasimi N, Sohrabi Z, Nunes EA, Sadeghi E, Jamshidi S, Gholami Z, Akbarzadeh M, Faghih S, Akhlaghi M, Phillips SMWhey Protein Supplementation with or without Vitamin D on Sarcopenia-Related Measures: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.Adv Nutr.(2023-Jul)